This module discusses how Urbit's subject-oriented programming paradigm structures how cores and values are used and maintain state, as well as how deferred computations and remote value lookups (“scrying”) are handled. This module does not cover core genericity and variance, which will be explained in a later module.
The Subject
As we've said before:
The Urbit operating system hews to a conceptual model wherein each expression takes place in a certain context (the subject). While sharing a lot of practicality with other programming paradigms and platforms, Urbit's model is mathematically well-defined and unambiguously specified. Every expression of Hoon is evaluated relative to its subject, a piece of data that represents the environment, or the context, of an expression.
Subject-oriented programming means that every expression is evaluated with respect to some subject. Every arm of a core is evaluated with its parent core as the subject.
You have also seen how wings work as search paths to identify nouns in the subject, and you have learned three ways to access values by address: numeric addressing, lark notation, and wing search expressions.
Generally speaking, the following rune families allow you to do certain things to the subject:
|bar runes create cores, i.e. largely self-contained expressions^ket runes transform cores, i.e. change core properties%cen runes pull arms in cores=tis runes modify the subject by introducing or replacing values
Different kinds of cores can expose or conceal functionality (such as their sample) based on their variance model. We don't need to be concerned about that yet, but if you are building certain kinds of library code or intend to build code expressions directly, you'll need to read that module as well.
Accessing the Subject
Usually the subject of a Hoon expression isn't shown explicitly. In fact, only when using :/. wing lookup expressions have we made the subject explicit.
An arm is always evaluated with its parent core as its subject. We've briefly mentioned that one can use helper cores (e.g. for generators) by composing the cores side-by-side using =< tisgal and => tisgar. This way we can make sure that the arms fall within each other's subject horizon.
Why must an arm have its parent core as the subject, when it's computed? As stated previously, the payload of a core contains all the data needed for computing the arms of that core. Arms can only access data in the subject. By requiring that the parent core be the subject we guarantee that each arm has the appropriate data available to it. The tail of its subject contains the payload and thus all the values therein. The head of the subject is the battery, which allows for making reference to sibling arms of that same core.
In the Dojo, if you use +1 by itself, you can see the current subject.
> +1[ [ our=~zodnow=~2022.6.22..18.35.42..da35eny0vb6.cve93.67frc.2gtoj.jfl3i.odojg.urrce.o53d3.44h4o.sf3o5.va2mh.ra1ec.jrkej.u512k.l4lin.f003v.li030.l2e6t.ah7ge.6t5cg.epuil]<17.bny 33.ehb 14.dyd 53.vlb 77.lrt 232.oiq 51.qbt 123.zao 46.hgz 1.pnw %140>]
. does the same thing: it always refers to the current subject.
If . is the subject, then ..arm is the subject of a given arm (the second . dot being the wing resolution operator). You can check the details of the parent core using something like ..add. This trick is used when producing agents that have highly nested operations (search .. in the /app directory), or when composing jets, for instance.
Another use case for the ..arm syntax is when there is a core in the subject without a face bound to it; i.e., the core might be nameless. In that case you can use an arm name in that core to refer to the whole core.
> ..add<46.hgz 1.pnw %140>
Tutorial: The Core Structure of hoon.hoon
Let's take a deeper look at how cores can be combined with => tisgar to build up larger structures. => p=hoon q=hoon yields the product of q with the product of p taken as the subject; i.e. it composes Hoon statements, like cores.
We use this to set the context of cores. Recall that the payload of a gate is a cell of [sample context]. For example:
> =foo =>([1 2] |=(@ 15))> +3:foo[0 1 2]
Here we have created a gate with [1 2] as its context that takes in an @ and returns 15. +3:foo shows the payload of the core to be [0 [1 2]]. Here 0 is the default value of @ and is the sample, while [1 2] is the context that was given to foo.
=> tisgar (and its reversed version =< tisgal) are used extensively to put cores into the context of other cores.
=>|%++ foo|= a=@(mul a 2)--|%++ bar|= a=@(mul (foo a) 2)--
At the level of arms, ++foo is in the subject of ++bar, and so ++bar is able to call ++foo. On the other hand, +bar is not in the subject of ++foo, so ++foo cannot call ++bar - you will get a -find.bar error.
At the level of cores, the => sets the context of the core containing ++bar to be the core containing ++foo. Recall that arms are evaluated with the parent core as the subject. Thus ++bar is evaluated with the core containing it as the subject, which has the core containing ++foo in its context. This is why ++foo is in the scope of ++bar but not vice versa.
Let's look inside /sys/hoon.hoon, where the standard library is located, to see how this can be used.
The first core listed here has just one arm.
=> %140 =>|%++ hoon-version +--
This is reflected in the subject of hoon-version.
> ..hoon-version<1.pnw %140>
After several lines that we'll ignore for pedagogical purposes, we see
|%:: # %math:: unsigned arithmetic+| %math++ add~/ %add:: unsigned addition:::: a: augend:: b: addend|= [a=@ b=@]:: sum^- @?: =(0 a) b$(a (dec a), b +(b))::++ dec
and so on, down to
++ unit|$ [item]:: maybe:::: mold generator: either `~` or `[~ u=a]` where `a` is the:: type that was passed in.::$@(~ [~ u=item])--
This core contains the arms in sections 1a–1c of the standard library documentation. If you count them, there are 46 arms in the core from ++ add down to ++ unit. We again can see this fact reflected in the dojo by looking at the subject of add.
> ..add<46.hgz 1.pnw %140>
Here we see that core containing hoon-version is in the subject of the section 1 core.
Next, section 2 starts:
=>:: :::::: 2: layer two ::
...
|%:: :::::: 2a: unit logic :::: :::: biff, bind, bond, both, clap, drop, :::: fall, flit, lift, mate, need, some ::::++ biff :: apply|* {a/(unit) b/$-(* (unit))}?~ a ~(b u.a)
If you counted the arms in this core by hand, you'll come up with 123 arms. This is also reflected in the dojo:
> ..biff<123.zao 46.hgz 1.pnw %140>
and we also see the section 1 core and the core containing hoon-version in the subject.
We can also confirm that ++add is in the subject of ++biff
> add:biff<1.otf [[a=@ b=@] <46.hgz 1.pnw %140>]>
and that ++biff is not in the subject of ++add.
> biff:add-find.biff
Lastly, let's check the subject of the last arm in hoon.hoon (as of June 2022):
> ..pi-tell<77.lrt 232.oiq 51.qbt 123.zao 46.hgz 1.pnw %140>
This confirms for us, then, that hoon.hoon consists of six nested cores, with one inside the payload of the next, with the hoon-version core most deeply nested.
Exercise: Explore hoon.hoon
- Pick a couple of arms in
hoon.hoonand check to make sure that they are only referenced in its parent core or core(s) that have the parent core put in its context via the=>or=<runes.
Axes of the Subject
The core Arvo subject exposes several axes (plural of +$axis which is the tree address) in the subject. You've encountered these before:
ouris the ship's identity.> -<..our=~necnowis 128-bit timestamp sourced from the wall clock time, Linux'sgettimeofday().> ->-..now=~2022.6.22..20.41.18..82f4enyis 512 bits of entropy as@uvJ, sourced from a CSPRNG and hash-iterated using++shax. (enyis shared between vanes during an event, so there are currently limits on how much it should be relied on until the Urbit kernel is security-hardened, but it is unique within each Gall agent activation.)> ->+..eny0vmr.qobqc.fd9f0.h5hf4.dkurh.b4s37.lt4qf.2k505.j3sir.cnshk.ldpm0.jeppc.ti7gs.vtpru.u09sm.0imu0.cgdln.fvoqc.mt41e.3iga5.qpct7
State and Applications
Default Hoon expressions are stateless. This means that they don't really make reference to any other transactions or events in the system. They don't preserve the results of previous calculations beyond their own transient existence.
However, clearly regular applications, such as Gall agents, are stateful, meaning that they modify their own subject regularly.
There are several ways to manage state. One approach, including %= centis, directly modifies the subject using a rune. Another method is to use the other runes to compose or sequence changes together (e.g. as a pipe of gates). By and large the = tis runes are responsible for modifying the subject, and the ; mic runes permit chaining deferred computations together.
To act in a stateful manner, a core must mutate itself and then pin the mutated copy in its place. Most of the time this is handled by Arvo's Gall vane, by the Dojo, or another system service, but we need to explicit modify and manage state for cores as we work within these kinds of applications.
We will use %say generators as a bridge concept. We will produce some short applications that maintain state while carrying out a calculation; they still result in a single return value, but gesture at the big-picture approach to maintaining state in persistent agents.
As you may recall, a %say generator is like a naked generator except rather than being simply a gate, it is a cell of %say (as a tag) and a gate. This gate can receive more information as gate arguments as part of its sample, such as a timestamp now, some entropy eny, and a file system beak bec. These allow us to think about how a core can modify and maintain state. Although a %say generator, like all generators, ultimately simply terminates, a Gall agent will be a persistent core with state that can continue to be used.
Here are a couple of new runes for modifying the subject and chaining computations together, aside from %= centis which you've already seen:
=.tisdot is used to change a leg in the subject.=~tissig composes many expressions together serially.
Tutorial: Bank Account
In this section, we will write a door that can act as a bank account with the ability to withdraw, deposit, and check the account's balance. This door replaces the sample of the door with the new values as each transaction proceeds.
Click to expand
:- %say|= *:- %noun=< =~ new-account(deposit 100)(deposit 100)(withdraw 50)balance==|%++ new-account|_ balance=@ud++ deposit|= amount=@ud+>.$(balance (add balance amount))++ withdraw|= amount=@ud+>.$(balance (sub balance amount))----
We start with the three boilerplate lines we have in every %say generator:
:- %say|= *:- %noun
In the above code chunk, we're creating a cell. The head of this cell is %say. The tail is a gate (|= *) that produces another cell (:- %noun) with a head of the mark of a the kind of data we are going to produce, a %noun; the tail of the second cell is the rest of the program.
=< =~ new-account(deposit 100)(deposit 100)(withdraw 50)balance==
In this code above, we're going to compose two runes using =<, which has inverted arguments. We use this rune to keep the heaviest twig to the bottom of the code.
The =~ tissig rune composes multiple expressions together; we use it here to make the code more readable. We take new-account and use that as the subject for the call to deposit. deposit and withdraw both produce a new version of the door that's used in subsequent calls, which is why we are able to chain them in this fashion. The final reference is to balance, which is the account balance contained in the core that we examine below.
|%++ new-account|_ balance=@ud++ deposit|= amount=@ud+>.$(balance (add balance amount))++ withdraw|= amount=@ud+>.$(balance (sub balance amount))----
We've chosen here to wrap our door in its own core to emulate the style of programming that is used when creating libraries. ++new-account is the name of our door. A door is a core with one or more arms that has a sample. Here, our door has a sample of one @ud with the face balance and two arms ++deposit and ++withdraw.
Each of these arms produces a gate which takes an @ud argument. Each of these gates has a similar bit of code inside:
+>.$(balance (add balance amount))
+> is a kind of wing syntax, lark notation. This particular wing construction looks for the tail of the tail (the third element) in $ buc, the subject of the gate we are in. The ++withdraw and ++deposit arms create gates with the entire new-account door as the context in their cores' [battery sample context], in the "tail of the tail" slot. We change balance to be the result of adding balance and amount and produce the door as the result. ++withdraw functions the same way only doing subtraction instead of addition.
It's important to notice that the sample, balance, is stored as part of the door rather than existing outside of it.
Exercise: Bank Account
- Modify the
%saygenerator above to accept a@udunsigned decimal dollar amount and a?(%deposit %withdraw)term and returns the result of only that operation on the starting balance of the bank account. (Note that this will only work once on the door, and the state will not persist between generator calls.)
Deferred Computations
Deferred computation means that parts of the subject have changes that may be underdetermined at first. These must be calculated later using the appropriate runes as new or asynchronous information becomes available.
For instance, a network service call may take a while or may fail. How should the calculation deal with these outcomes? In addition, the successful result of the network data is unpredictable in content (but should not be unpredictable in format!).
We have some more tools available for managing deferred or chained computations, in addition to =~ tissig and =* tistar:
=^tisket is used to change a leg in the tail of the subject then evaluate against it. This is commonly used for events that need to be ordered in their resolution e.g. with a%=centis. (Used in Gall agents frequently.)=*tistar defers an expression (rather like a macro).;<micgal sequences two computations, particularly for an asynchronous event like a remote system call. (Used in threads.);~micsig produces a pipeline, a way of piping the output of one gate into another in a chain. (This is particularly helpful when parsing text.)
++og Randomness
A random number generator provides a stream of calculable but unpredictable values from some distribution. In a later lesson, we explain how random numbers can be generated from entropy; for now, let's see what's necessary to use such a random-number generator.
An RNG emits a sequence of values given a starting seed. For instance, a very simple RNG could emit digits of the number π given a seed which is the number of digits to start from.
- seed 1: 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5
- seed 3: 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5, 8, 9
- seed 100: 8, 2, 1, 4, 8, 0, 8, 6, 5, 1
Every time you start this “random” number generator with a given seed, it will reproduce the same sequence of numbers.
While RNGs don't work like our π-based example, a given seed will reliably produce the same result every time it is run.
The basic RNG core in Hoon is ++og. ++og is a door whose sample is its seed. We need to use eny to seed it non-deterministically, but we can also pin the state using =^ tisket. ++rads:rng produces a cell of a random whole number in a given range and a new modified core to continue the random sequence.
> =+ rng=~(. og eny)[-:(rads:rng 100) -:(rads:rng 100)][60 60]
Since the rng starts from the same seed value every single time, both of the numbers will always be the same. What we have to do is pin the updated version of the RNG (the tail of ++rads:og's return cell) to the subject using =^ tisket, e.g.,
> =/ rng ~(. og eny)=^ r1 rng (rads:rng 100)=^ r2 rng (rads:rng 100)[r1 r2][21 47]
Tutorial: Magic 8-Ball
The Magic 8-Ball returns one of a variety of answers in response to a call. In its entirety:
Click to expand
!::- %say|= [[* eny=@uvJ *] *]:- %noun^- tape=/ answers=(list tape):~ "It is certain.""It is decidedly so.""Without a doubt.""Yes - definitely.""You may rely on it.""As I see it, yes.""Most likely.""Outlook good.""Yes.""Signs point to yes.""Reply hazy, try again""Ask again later.""Better not tell you now.""Cannot predict now.""Concentrate and ask again.""Don't count on it.""My reply is no.""My sources say no.""Outlook not so good.""Very doubtful."===/ rng ~(. og eny)=/ val (rad:rng (lent answers))(snag val answers)
Zoom in on these lines:
=/ rng ~(. og eny)=/ val (rad:rng (lent answers))
~(. og eny) starts a random number generator with a seed from the current entropy. A random number generator is a stateful mathematical function that produces an unpredictable result (unless you know the algorithm AND the starting value, or seed). Here we pull the subject of ++og, the randomness core in Hoon, to start the RNG. An RNG like ++og maintains its own state, but we will find that we have to preserve state changes to continue to produce novel random numbers.
We slam the ++rad:rng gate which returns a random number from 0 to n-1 inclusive. This gives us a random value from the list of possible answers.
> +magic-8"Ask again later."
Tutorial: Dice Roll
Let's look at an example that uses all three parts. Save the code below in a file called dice.hoon in the /gen directory of your %base desk.
:- %say|= [[now=@da eny=@uvJ bec=beak] [n=@ud ~] [bet=@ud ~]]:- %noun[(~(rad og eny) n) bet]
This is a very simple dice program with an optional betting functionality. In the code, our sample specifies faces on all of the Arvo data, meaning that we can easily access them. We also require the argument [n=@ud ~], and allow the optional argument [bet=@ud ~].
We can run this generator like so:
> +dice 6, =bet 2[4 2]> +dice 6[5 0]> +dice 6[2 0]> +dice 6, =bet 200[0 200]> +dicenest-fail
We get a different value from the same generator between runs, something that isn't possible with a naked generator. Another novelty is the ability to choose to not use the second argument.
Scrying (In Brief)
A peek or a scry is a request to Arvo to tell you something about the state of part of the Urbit OS. Scries are used to determine the state of an agent or a vane. The .^ dotket rune sends the scry request to a particular vane with a certain care or type of scry. The request is then routed to a particular path in that vane. Scries are discused in detail in App School. We will only briefly introduce them here as we can use them later to find out about Arvo's system state, such as file contents and agent state.
%c Clay
The Clay filesystem stores nouns persistently at hierarchical path addresses. These nouns can be accessed using marks, which are rules for structuring the data. We call the nouns “files” and the path addresses “folders”.
If we want to retrieve the contents of a file or folder, we can directly ask Clay for the data using a scry with an appropriate care.
For instance, the %x care to the %c Clay vane returns the noun at a given address as a @ atom.
> .^(@ %cx /===/gen/hood/hi/hoon)3.548.750.706.400.251.607.252.023.288.575.526.190.856.734.474.077.821.289.791.377.301.707.878.697.553.411.219.689.905.949.957.893.633.811.025.757.107.990.477.902.858.170.125.439.223.250.551.937.540.468.638.902.955.378.837.954.792.031.592.462.617.422.136.386.332.469.076.584.061.249.923.938.374.214.925.312.954.606.277.212.923.859.309.330.556.730.410.200.952.056.760.727.611.447.500.996.168.035.027.753.417.869.213.425.113.257.514.474.700.810.203.348.784.547.006.707.150.406.298.809.062.567.217.447.347.357.039.994.339.342.906
There are tools like /lib/pretty-file/hoon which will render this legible to you by using formatted text tanks:
> =pretty-file -build-file %/lib/pretty-file/hoon> (pretty-file .^(noun %cx /===/gen/hood/hi/hoon))~[[%leaf p=":: Helm: send message to an urbit"][%leaf p="::"][%leaf p=":::: /hoon/hi/hood/gen"][%leaf p=" ::"][%leaf p="/? 310"][%leaf p=":- %say"][%leaf p="|=([^ [who=ship mez=$@(~ [a=tape ~])] ~] helm-send-hi+[who ?~(mez ~ `a.mez)])"]]
Similarly, you can request the contents at a particular directory path:
> .^(arch %cy /===/gen/hood)[ fil=~dir{ [p=~.resume q=~][p=~.install q=~][p=~.pass q=~][p=~.doze q=~]...[p=~.mount q=~]}]
There are many more options with Clay than just accessing file and folder data. For instance, we can also scry all of the desks on our current ship with the %d care of %c Clay:
> .^((set desk) %cd %){%bitcoin %base %landscape %webterm %garden %kids}
Other vanes have their own scry interfaces, which are well-documented in the Arvo docs.